Pat Maier Interactive Learning Centre, University of Southampton
Wendy Hall Electronics and Computer Science, University of Southampton
August 1996
Contact details:
Pat Maier email: pjm@ecs.soton.ac.uk tel: 0044 (0)1703 593314
Computers and learning have been heavily associated with individual
computer based learning (CBL) packages, generally delivered in a stand
alone mode in open learning centres. These packages are often prescriptive
in nature, leading students through a tightly guided hierarchy of activities.
While we see nothing wrong in this approach, it is only a small part of
the potential function computers have in Higher Education. The educational
community is now using computers more effectively as a resource for communication
as well as collaborative learning. Within this broader framework we are
discovering the advantage of distributed digital resource- based learning
that allows us to incorporate traditional computer -based learning packages
and standard software tools with a wider range of material enabling the
lecturer to incorporate structured learning environments with a research
oriented, constructivist style of learning for more advanced students.
This paper discusses our interpretation of resource-based learning together
with a design model. The work is based on our use of Microcosm open hypermedia
environment, but the results are generally applicable to other resource-based
learning environments.
We define resource-based learning as a wide range of multimedia teaching
and learning materials, crafted into a learning environment. These environments
comprise primary learning sources, such as text, video, pictures etc. through
to highly structured learning environments, such as computer based learning
packages, see Figure 1.
Figure 1 A Range of Learning Resources
Resources under 'Primary Learning' emulate a library where students
can search on key concepts according to their research query. These resources
are ideal for areas of knowledge that are ill-structured and not easily
reproduced in a more linear computer based learning package style.
The 'Structured Learning' end of the continuum refers to pedagogically
designed material with a particular group of students in mind. It is highly
structured and leads students through pre-defined routes. It can ensure
learning en-route via self assessment or testing. This kind of learning
material is good for information that can be well structured, for facts
that don't change rapidly over time, processes and procedures. It is ideal
for the beginner.
The ability to incorporate both structured and ill-structured domains
makes resource-bases a very rich learning environment for a wide variety
of learners. It also gives the system a longer shelf -life as when students
exhaust the structured environments, they can move to a more research style
of learning.
Microcosm is essentially a document management system that allows you
to group and cross reference multimedia documents (Davis et al 1992, Hall
et al 1996). Anything that can be produced in a Windows environment (be
it simple text or computer assisted learning programs ) can be registered
with Microcosm and then linked to form a hypermedia environment, see Figure
2.
Figure 2: A Simplified Model of Microcosm
Microcosm is an ideal environment for managing computer based learning
packages that have been produced by others , and where additionals documents
can be added by the tutor to provide additional information or re-focus
the material.
It is different from dedicated authoring packages that are usually used to produce computer assisted learning material. Documents are registered with Microcosm rather than being embedded within the package, as in traditional authoring packages. The advantage of this is that resources are not tied to Microcosm and remain a re-usuable resource in their own right. Editing takes place in the software where they were initially produced, with changes automatically appearing when the document is viewed through Microcosm. (Hall et al 1995).
Once documents are registered with Microcosm to form a resource base,
the next task is to link these documents and structure the application.
In contrast to the World Wide Web and other authoring packages, the information
about links is not embedded in the documents themselves, but held separately
in 'linkbases'. The implication of this is that resources can be linked
several ways, depending on the user group. For one group links may be explicitly
forged between concepts or documents while another group may use a sparingly
linked resource as a research base for assignments. Different linkbases
can be easily slipped in for these groups, offering different 'views' of
the resource base. In addition, resources can be grouped into a variety
of areas, each with a different linkbase. The tutor that is responsible
for that particular area is then free to link the information according
to his or her own view (Hall & Davis 1994).
Microcosm offers five link types to the author (although this is extensible)
, with no prescription on their use. One link type is the traditional 'hotspot'
or 'button'. It presents itself to the user as coloured text, which is
clicked on to activate. Another link type allows for the execution of programs
and again is displayed as a 'hotspot'. The remaining three links (generic,
local and computed) are not visible to the user. To use these links the
user selects a piece of text and asks the system to find any links from
the selection. The philosophy of this approach is to encourage active interrogation
of the material rather than passive clicking of hotspots, (Hall,1994).
We see Microcosm therefore as an ideal software environment for the
delivery of resource bases that include the integration of existing CBL
software into a resource base. However, simply registering and linking
documents with Microcosm is not sufficient to make a pool of documents
into an effective learning resource. How these resource bases are pedagogically
designed is the current focus of activity at the Interactive Learning Centre.
There are several stages in building a learning resource: collecting
and digitising the resources, structuring the resources via linking and
creating an instructional layer.
Figure 3 offers a schematic view of this process. Although each of these
stages may appear separate, to the user they are an integrated whole. This
design process is very much 'bottom-up', beginning with the resource base.
The bank of resources should be as rich as possible and not restricted
to serving the instructional aims alone. The instructional layer calls
upon sections of the resource base, but not necessarily all documents,
thus giving the learning environment a broader base than those resources
that simply meet the instructional objectives . The instructional layer
on the other hand is a 'top-down' approach, working from the aims and objectives
of the learning material.
The model is designed to allow maximum flexibility to the underlying
resources. By constructing the instructional layer separate, but linked
to the resource base, we are mirroring the underlying nature of Microcosm's
open architecture. Documents are not embedded in Microcosm or marked up
with link information and similarly the instructional layer is not embedded
within the resources. At any stage therefore, these resources can be re-used
, or a new instructional layer added.
Figure 3 A supported resource base as a learning environment
Once the appropriate knowledge domain that students are expected to
work in is established (i.e. subject areas and level) , the resources need
to be digitised. This ranges from scanning texts and pictures, capturing
slides digitally with photo-CD, digitising sound and video clips, in general
creating a multimedia set of documents. At this stage the designer is not
overly concerned with the didactic implications of the material, as long
as it is within the required knowledge domain.
Making and linking resource webs
At the resources level the design will have documents grouped into several
areas (webs) that need to be cross referenced (linked). Each area will
have a set of key documents as signposts to guide the user through the
material giving the web a structure (without necessarily being hierarchical).
A hierarchy automatically exists in Microcosm via the Select a Document
dialogue box which in effect functions like the contents page of a book.
This is a hierarchy for all documents within the resource (application).
Linking offers the opportunity to display a perspective on the data,
and since Microcosm allows multiple linkbases, we can achieve these multiple
perspectives. These perspectives, when well organised, allow the student
to develop a schema of that knowledge domain, (Norman et al 1976). Multiple
perspectives also allow us to layer information according to the user,
with less experienced users getting a more structured web compared to their
experienced counterparts. This way we can build on existing knowledge (or
schema) to enhance learning. Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro &
Jehng 1990) supports the view that multiple views of complex knowledge
domains encourage students to be flexible in their thinking which in turn
enhances their ability to solve problems in the real world.
The links should aid the learner in his or her construction of knowledge
and we need to consider a linking strategy to achieve this. Regardless
of the kinds of links a particular software package has, we need to develop
a general concept of the kinds of links we should be using, simply 'linking'
is not sufficient. This paper argues that at least three link structures
should be considered: cognitive, support and administrative (admin).
Cognitive linking structures the material according to a particular
cognitive view; it is the intellectual structuring of concepts. This can
be depicted as links that: oppose a view, give an alternative view, offer
'see also information', expand information, give key concepts, offer 'looks
like' and ' comprises' etc..
Support linking structures the material according to key documents only.
These can be at both the instructional and resource level. We make links
to glossaries, overviews, synopses, web maps etc. This produces a scaffolding
for students. Scaffolding is a term used in the constructivist literature
to depict ways of supporting students' management of their own learning.
Once students know these links are there, they know they can quickly get
an overview of key concepts before delving into wider areas.
Administrative (admin) links structure the resource in terms of navigation,
the system help, course information, about this package etc.
Establishing a link concept or strategy therefore is a vital step in
crafting the resource base into an effective learning environment. In fact,
the process of linking itself is one of the most effective ways to understanding,
and for it to be the sole prerogative of the lecturer is a waste. Jonassen
(1990) believes that hypermedia systems should allow students to create
their own hyperdocuments that reflect their view and understanding of the
domain. Trentin (1992) found from a study that asked students to schematically
represent mathematical information as short educational units, that those
engaged in this exercise had a higher ability to recognise the structuring
of material than those who were taught conventionally. Since Microcosm
offers the flexibility of linkbases, and the distinction between reader
and author is blurred, students are able to be given an empty linkbase
where they can construct their own links, without interfering with the
lecturer's links, and develop their own mental models.
Instructionally designed material is not only made available at this
level. The resources themselves could contain CBL packages. The focus of
the instructional layer, is the pedagogical objectives for a group students
on a particular course. If a CBL package has been incorporated, that serves
as one resource for a given objective; the lecturer may need to use more
material than that CBL package alone. The instructional layer should reflect
the most appropriate teaching method for the subject and level of the student.
It should link into the underlying resource base, but not necessarily use
all the resources.
Jonassen (1992) refers to three stages of knowledge acquisition which
could help with the instructional design: the introductory, advanced and
expert stages. The introductory learning phase is reflected by well- structured
domains with generally quite heavy guidance, which can be seen in activities
such as drill and practice, question and answer, calculations and multiple
choice type activities etc.This is very much the traditional instructional
design view and very evident in CBL packages.
Jonassen's advanced phase (intermediate learner) is reflected by ill-structured
domains where learners must start to solve complex problems and re-assemble
and extend information to make it fit a given context; this is a constructive
phase. Some examples are : problem solving and case based activities. Problem
solving relies on the learner searching the resource base and beyond for
a possible answer to the problem; they are free to devise their own route
and method. Case based learning uses a smaller set of information which
is characterised by the case itself. This is particularly useful in medical
applications once introductory information has been learned. The learner
needs to know the procedures in their field for handling given cases while
analysing the information given and referring to the resource base (as
in real life) to reach a conclusion and implement a decision. The variety
of cases will extend the learner's view of the subject domain encouraging
them to use information flexibly across situations in a similar way to
experts. Cases 'tell stories' and encourage students to use context specific
procedures in managing the issues involved. Cases can be: paradigmatic
(the usual scenario that students should be familiar with), important (key
cases that resulted in changes or simply a noteworthy illustration) or
unusual (causing possible conflict with existing views and procedures)
(Schank and Cleary 1994). Both problem solving and case-based learning
can be viewed as a collaborative or an individual exercise.
Jonassen's third category, the expert, characteristically has a well
integrated cognitive structure of his/her subject often drawing on information
from adjacent knowledge domains as their expertise grows, and it is this
integration of information, into a complex knowledge web, that students
are encouraged to develop. Moving from the structured learning environment
to a research led environment is one way that resource based learning can
lead students to a truly independent form of study.
an example from Southampton
The Psychiatry Department at the University of Southampton is producing
a resource base in Microcosm for doctors on a six week pyschiatry course
(PILP - Psychiatry Interactive Learning Package). In a short space of time
doctors need to understand some of the more common psychiatric problems
they may be faced with.
Figure 4 gives a schematic representation of the design. Each of the
webs in the resource level will be linked via separate linkbases. The 'clinical
disorders' web comprises information about various disorders while the
'basic sciences' gives background information on 'neuroanatomy', 'physiology',
'pharmacology' and 'sociology'.
Figure 4: Design model for PILP
The instructional layer is led by a case-based approach as it was felt
that these third year students, on such a short course, needed a more clinical
decision -making approach than a straight lecture course could provide.
Since it is very difficult to arrange real clinical experience during such
a short course, a case-based approach could offer a solution. Since the
students taking this course are not specialising in Psychiatry, the case
studies offered fall under the 'paradigmatic' group, offering students
samples of most frequently occurring problems.
The case studies comprise: a video of the patient during an interview
together with the patient's history. After viewing the video, the student
is asked to write his or her own mental state examination report (via fixed
headings ) in an integrated word processor. They are then expected to diagnose
the patient and make decisions on how to manage him or her. The diagnostic
options are multiple choice questions that lead to various analyses and
link out to the underlying resources on clinical disorders. Figure 5 shows
the screen when working on a case study.
Figure 5 PILP: working with a patient case
The management option in the case study allows the student to make a
decision on handling the patient at a physical (choice of drug) , pyschological
(what treatment) and social aspects (social management method).
Currently the quiz acts as a self testing device on clinical disorders.
However, questions could also be built into the quiz for patient management
which would test how much they have gained from working through the case
studies.
PILP fulfils most of the criteria we feel are necessary for a supportive,
relevant and active resource-based learning environment.However, it is
still under construction and when it is trialled shortly we shall be able
to evaluate the approach.
Our view of resource bases as learning environments is essentially constructivists,
but not totally. We believe in a mix of styles from controlled instructional
input to little or no instruction at all, depending on the level of the
students, the subject domain and the learning aims of the students. An
instructional layer is constructed above the resource base which is drawn
on, as and when necessary by tutor and student. This instruction guides
students through particular learning experiences that are applicable to
a given knowledge domain, and provides varying degrees of support (scaffolding)
throughout the material.
Below the instructional layer is the broader resource which when linked
strategically, using cognitive, support and administrative type linking,
can help students build an effective schema of domain as well as reflect
multiple perspectives on the resources. Multiple perspectives allow students
to 'see' information in a variety of ways, increasing their ability to
flexibly assess information and apply it in unusual contexts. When learners
are also able to construct their own links through the resource, they develop
a deeper understanding of the resource .
For the author, the task of preparing such material can be incremental
or modular; the resource base and instructional layer is forever open and
extendible. All this gives the package a longer and richer shelf-life than
single, stand-alone computer based learning packages.